Summary

The spiritual heritage of Philo of Alexandria had been undertaken by Christianity and bequeathed to us. Eusebius of Caesaria (died in 340) had also contributed to it. He considered the therapeutai to be the monks of early Christianity and connected them to the community which – according to the tradition transmitted by him – was founded by Mark in Alexandria. Their ascetical way of life reminded him of the Old Testament prophets and their lack of property and their concern to philosophy reminded him of the early Christians. However he noticed that they promoted Jewish practices. Epiphanius (c. 315–403) adopted Eusebius’ view. He expressed his opinion that the Therapeutai originally had been called >Iessai/oi which in his view had the meaning of healers or worshippers. In De vita contemplativa (DVC) he affirms that it refers to the Essenes (Panarion XXIX. 4,9–10; 5,1). Jerome (died in 420), father of the church agrees with Eusebius’ supposition and later Mikhael of Syria, the Monophysite patriarch of Antioch follows the same line. Eusebius’ view on the Therapeute devotion defined its range for centuries. His view was nor revised until the Age of Reformation. The followers of Reformation criticized monastic order as well. The Roman Catholic Church replied by sustaining that monasticism grew out of the early Christian tradition trying to verify this tradition by the Therapeutai’s devotion based on Eusebius’ interpretation. Martinus Chemnicius and Joseph Justus Scaliger got to the conclusion that the Therapeutai’s devotion movement has to be considered a Jewish sect. Roman Catholic scholars turned against this view and its supporters and during the dispute that lasted for about three and a half centuries the critical view grew stronger. Some of the scholars even doubted Philo’s authorship (H. Grätz, Paul Ernst Lucius, E. Schürer, A. Hilgenfeld, Eduard Zeller, Abraham Kuenen, I.M. Jost, T.K. Cheyne, J. Drummond and R.F. Littledale). The study of the Therapeute issue got to a decisive turn with the publication of F. C. Conybeare’s book in 1895. It is a response to P.E. Lucius’ critical study, as Lucius relied on Eusebius’ view and on the studies that carried further his interpretation. The research work carried on by Conybeare, M. L. Massebieau and P. Wendland conclusively proved that DVC was written by Philo about 30 AD; its language, vocabulary and style are characteristic to Philo and the ideas developed here are to found in other writings of his. With the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls new possibilities have been opened for drawing a parallel between the Essene and Therapeute movements of devotion.

Philo might have been in direct connection with the Therapeutai who dwelt in the neighbourhood of Alexandria and it seems that he belonged more or less to their community (De specialibus legibus III, 1–6). The subjectivism of DVC informs us on Philo’s being on brotherly terms with the Therapeutai dwelling by Mareotis-Lake. The description of the Therapeutai’s habitation, houses common sacred places gives the same factual impression as Philo’s writings on the Essenes. Consequently Philo’s work is based on his personal experience and we have to view the activity of the Therapeute community historically. Nevertheless it is impossible for us to draw a historical picture of the existence of the Therapeute community relying on his account. He does not inform on the time, reasons and circumstances of its appearance. He acknowledges nothing but the fact that in the first decade of the 1st century there lived a restricted number of Therapeutai in Egypt. Referring to the su/sthma word which occurs in 75. §, Conybeare observes that the Therapeute community could function as sodalitas for which state authorization was necessary. So the Therapeute community may have been recognized either under Augustus’ or Tiberius’ reign (Conybeare, 297–299). In so far as it is reliable, the community must have shown a certain level of organization at the turn of our era.

DVC is part of Quod omnis probus liber sit written on the Essenes of Palestine. It is striking however that the latter is a very short account. Hence we can deduce that the writing on the Essenes alluded to in DVC may have got lost. This work and DVC is supposed to have described Jewish “philosophy” for the Greek and Roman educated reader having tried to prove that the Jews did have their own philosophy and philosophical schools as well. F. C. Conybeare got to the conclusion that the subtitle of DVC Peri\ a>retw~n to\ te/tarton (On Virtues. Book Four) hints at a series of books by Philo (Apologia) on virtues, namely on the order of God’s virtues (active force). In so far as DVC had been returned earlier it may have been enclosed later by Philo on the occasion of his legation to Gaius. The series of writings issued in this way may have been formed of the following books: 1. Legatio ad Gaium; 2. In Flaccum; 3. Quod omnis probus liber sit (which may have got occasionally into the series – B. Motzo); 4. De vita contemplativa (Conybeare). Scientists certainly agree that DVC and Quod omnis probus liber sit on the Essenes belong together. The two books were included in Apologia (L. Cohn, P. Wendland, L. Massebieau, N. Smirnov, F. Daumas), or in the lengthier <Upocetika/ (Wendland) or in the work entitled Peri\ >Ioudai/wn (V. L. Ivanizki).

The addition to Greek title (Peri\ bi/ou cewrhtikou~) of the DVC (h& i<ke/thj ) differs from what could have gone without saying. Why does Philo call i<ke/thj the Therapeute community? Other writings by Philo testify that the term cerapeuth/j (serving God, healer, recovering) is closely connected with i<ke/thj (beseeching, protection-searching, asking for purifying after having sinned, offering protection). This term was often used by Philo when referring to the sons of Israel, to those who were Jews by birth and for those who became Jews by adoption as well. The two concepts form a recurrent synonymous word-pair (i<ke/thj kai\ cerapeuth\j) and refer to the priestly way of life, to Moses’ and Aaron’s service, to a perfect way of life pleasing God (te/leioj). This priestly way of life is the true service of God superior to everything and it means the most intimate community with God. Philo calls the community of the Therapeutai Moses’ disciples (63. §) and an order (11. §) that leads to perfect devotion. This priestly service does not match being concerned with earthly things, so priests do not have other choice than to seek shelter in God and serve Him (cf. 90. §). The concept i<ke/thj for this reason reflects the Therapeutai’s life and mission. Refugiating to God’s community they search for purification, spiritual healing. All those who are ready to leave the madding crowd are invited to join their community.

The appendix entitled The “Synopsis” of Quod omnis probus liber sit 75–91 and DVC illustrates the similarities that occur in the description of the Essene and Therapeute communities. A parallel between the two texts at first reading reflects those issues that are consonant in the two devotion movements. They are the following: – Representatives of perfect charity are to be found both in Palestine and Egypt. Those living in Palestine are called Essenes while those living in Egypt are called Therapeutai. The meaning of both stress that the representatives of both movements serve God above all. The Essenes do not offer sacrifice but they sacrifice themselves spiritually; the Therapeutai get spiritual healing and the gift of healing by serving God. – Both communities are looking for and create at the same time peaceful living conditions for themselves and they form a close system. – Both communities are in search for modesty and they consider modesty and fairness to be the utmost wealth and happiness. The Therapeutai are much more radical: they consider the good things in life and wealth to be the causes of all evil and spiritual blindness. – There are no slaves in their communities. Descent and the earlier status do not matter. They wish to establish not only equality but also a friendly, familial and brotherly community. – Both movements are wrapt in the Holy Scriptures – to express this by the particular term used by Philo with apologetycal and proving intention, they “philosophise”. Their remarkable devotion and their virtue are developed by “philosophy”. – They attach special importance to the seventh day. On that day the Essenes proceed to a sacred place called synagogue, while the Therapeutai proceed to their common sacred place where they are wrapt in interpreting the Holy Scriptures by symbolic or allegorical approaches practised of old. – There are similarities in the aim of their teaching. The Essenes try to increase the fear of God, sanctity, righteousness and they lay stress on differentiation between good and evil, indifference respectively. By lifting their eyes to God they try to increase knowledge and piety and to improve their moral charity. While searching for Scriptures both follow the principal attentively in a proper way, seating is in order of rank. – In both sects avoiding resorting to falsehood, consistent cleanliness, perseverance, good will, destroying the longing for vain glory and sensual lust, contentedness, even-temperedness, equity, fellowship and decency are very important. – Both sects criticize unrestrained instincts, the evil of the heathen world, deceitfulness and lie and eulogize the Essenes’ and the Therapeutai’s real freedom and their feasts showing genuine community. – The Essenes’ and Therapeutai’s communities are the best examples of perfect and happy life (Quod omnis probus liber sit 91), that is the place of attainable, superior happiness (DVC 90).

Fragments of Pro Judaeis defensio were preserved by Eusebius of Caesarea for posterity in his Praeparatio evangelica (VIII. 11,1–18). Eusebius relied on Philo, who could not have been acquainted to the Essenes of Palestine. The picture drawn by him is distorted by his having viewed the Essene community as an early Christian devotion movement and because he did not distinguish between the groups accepting celibacy and those who accept marriage. Pro Judaeis defensio matches DVC in the following: – Descendence (which marks status at the same time) is not relevant in the two communities. – They join the community on their free will, they bind themselves for a moral life and for charity. – Both communities are characterized by ascetic way of life, control over passion and real freedom. This means in both communities the rejecting of marriage. – They aspire to a decent life as according to them wealth and plenty of food are maleficent for body and soul as well, they are enemies and traps. – The members of both communities wear simple clothes. The description of both winter and summer clothes is similar. – Their real freedom consists in rejecting profit, in abolition of slavery and in joining a cultual, brotherly community. – Respecting each other and taking care of the old are of great importance in both communities. – Non-members also appreciate and admire the way of life of both communities because they practise charity and philanthropy which leads to real happiness.

The name Therapeutes (cerapeuth/j) refers both to service in front of God and healing. Worshipping God and healing are closely connected in Philo’s thinking, they complete each other. The therapeute way of life (healing and recovering) is closely connected with mastering passions that leads to spiritual healing. Spiritual healing needs permanent, contemplation which can be attained at a mature age (cf. DVC 2). Spiritual and moral healing does not characterize only the Therapeutai but the Essenes as well, who gain healing and real freedom in the light of God’s glory (cf. 1QH IV,26–28). Philo’s writings testify that the Therapeute way of life is linked to the priestly function. Consequently the Therapeute sect called by Philo Moses’ followers is a community of priestly character, fact which shows another similarity to the Essenes of Palestine.

The Therapeutai’s ascetical piety is also characterized by renouncement to wealth. DVC does not in form on the Therapeutai’s economic activity or on supervisers responsible of goods and on cashiers. Philo’s attention is completely concentrated on presenting the meditative devotion of the community. One can imagine though that they had a supervisor responsible for the providing for food and clothing. The Therapeutai’s renouncing to wealth can be compared to the exclusive property status and common activity of the Essenes. Both are based upon the dualistic view and consequently on detaching themselves from the surrounding world. This separation has to come from one’s free will (1QS 1,11; DVC 13). The Therapetai avoided wealth and the rich because they considered social and economic inequality to be the cause of overthrowing God’s creation. In their view social inequity meant the “primary cause ” which generated injustice and avarice the result of which is despotism over the weak (70. §). The Cairo Damascus Document disapproves wealth in the same vehement way when it is called Belial’s ambush (CD IV,15–18). The separation of the Essenes and Therapeutai, their attitude towards wealth and their asceticism can be compared best to the way of life proclaimed by Pythagorean teaching. Certain circles of Egyptian priesthood and the Stoics were also characterized by this attitude. Nevertheless these similarities do not mean that the Therapeute community is a faithful copy of the Pythagorean group (I. Levy) or that they considered the Egyptian priesthood or stoicism a primary model. The requirements of social justice are to be found in the Torah as well and the roots of asceticism can also be discovered in the Jews’ life. There is no reason to doubt that the phenomena characteristic to that age had exercised an effect on the development of the different branches on the Essene movement; they rather reminded of the Jewish roots and increased the adherence to them.

The Therapeutai’s scriptural studies and meditations are called “philosophizing” by Philo because he regards the revelation of God’s word the philosophy of philosophies, the “sublime teaching on sacred wisdom” and “wisdom derived from the ancestors” (DVC 26, 28). Asceticism is the primary condition of scriptural studies and in their view philosophical studies go well with light while the needs of the flash belong to “darkness” (34–35 §). Accordingly spiritual sight also needs light, the presence of God’s light (11. §). This idea is also to be found in the Essenes’ thinking. In accordance with the Therapeutais’s dualist view the Sun is God’s material symbol and the embodiment of truth; darkness is the symbol of evil. Learning, knowledge and truth can only be attained in the community of God (light).

The Therapeutai pray for clear-sightedness and heavenly light twice a day (27. §) i.e. they beg for light; this reminds of Gnostic contemplation (Pierre Geoltrain) the traces of which are to be found in the Essene community too (cf. eg. 1QS II,3). The Therapeutai’s meditation was associated with ecstasy (dream – 26. §). They have visions, they have an insight into the heavenly mysteries in the same way as the prophets of pseudoepigraph literature (Enoch, Abraham, Jacob, Levi, Esdras). As they meditate on the beauty and power of heavenly perfection and on the teachings of wisdom alone and as they search the Scriptures only on the seventh day in contrast to the Essenes, they are less interested in historical exegesis. The Peshers of Qumran on the other hand are of historical character, they are eschatological and messianistic interpretations. Philo informs us that when speaking about the Essenes they applied symbolical method of interpretation (Quod omnis probus liber sit 82.). Here we may have a wider sense of interpretation. The question is what Philo wants to express by allegory and to what extent he conforms to the educated Greek and Roman readers when speaking about it. A there is no concrete Therapeute interpretation available we cannot compare their method with that of the Essenes’.

DVC 27,66–67, 89 and De bello II. 8, 128–132 show more resemblance concerning the Therapeutai’s and the Essenes’ prayers. The Therapeutai’s morning and evening prayers can be connected not only to the Essenes’ praying time but also to the Palestinian and temple tradition. The descriptions mentioned above relate about the mass for the aurora in the two communities in the same way. The two sects are not sun worshippers. While normative Jews in Diaspora turned towards Jerusalem while praying it is possible that the two sects expressed a certain protestation by turning to the Sun. The attitude of the Essene community towards the Temple and towards official priesthood is well-known. But the question of praying in front of the rising Sun is very complex. It may be associated with the solar calendar of the Essenes (and Therapeutai) which constitutes significant dividing line between the official priesthood and the members of the sect. It is also in direct connection to the symbol-system used by the Essenes (and Therapeutai) as related to the Sun associated with God – light – life – wisdom – brightening up – justice – power of light. The Therapeutai’s ascetic devotion is characterized not only by searching the scriptures, meditation, prayer but also by singing of hymns and psalms. Hymns were composed by the principals of the community, they were those who taught the community members to sing them and they enriched the hymnal continually with new ones.

The Essenes’ and Therapeutai’s psalm-singing indicates first of all the common Old Testament origin. However these religious communities had different self-identity from normative Jews and this identity required for a special psalm-poetry to be accomplished. The Therapeutai’s psalms remind us of the church psalm-tradition characterized just like the Essene hymns by responsive singing and refrains. This singing of hymns developed outside the church is due not only to the distance from the Sanctuary or to the estrangement from the priesthood but also to the prophetical preaching criticizing sacrifice. The Essenes considered their community to be like a spiritual temple and this spiritual worship is very striking in the case of the Therapeutai as well. Part of the Essenes’ thanksgiving hymns may have resounded on festive occasions, probably on the feast dedicates to the renewal of the Covenant as well. However it is certain that the Therapeutai sang their hymns at dawn on the fiftieth day. Consequently these were connected to their feast expressing joy. Their overflowing joy presents similarities with the atmosphere of sacral feasts in the Qumran community. In the Essene table society one could feel the foretaste of the future Messianic feast (1Q28a II, 11–22). The nocturnal feast of the Therapeutai associated with singing and cultic dance was a new dash of colour as compared to the Essenes’. This practice shows similarities with the mystery religions (M. M. Jelizarova).

The Therapeutai’s feasts on the seventh day are based on Jewish tradition. This is supported by the existence of the “commom sacred place” which was a kind of “synagogue” and dining-room at the same time just like in the case of the Essenes of Qumran. The fence dividing men and women is also characteristic for synagogues, that is they remind of the church tradition. Their Sabbath has the same importance as in the Essene communities. It was on that day that they gave up their fasting and self-restraint. Asceticism having served spiritual healing in laying aside abstinence and is dining together they could foretaste complete healing. The seventh day feast had been looked upon by the Therapeutai as “sacred and intact forever” (65. §). They connected number seven to the Pythagorean numerology. In this way their Sabbath receives a Hellenistic foundation and universal character at the same time (cf. De opificio mundi 89). If the Therapeutai accorded to Sabbath such an importance we have to consider them to the community of Jewish character which was opened to the Hellenistic word ready to join them. Most of the scientists adopt the view that the Essenes’ feast had sacral character and that they replaced the church feast connected to offering a sacrifice. The Therapeuthai community on Mareia-lakeside considered by Philo to be “the most admirable” can be compared above all to the Essenes of Qumran. On this site there lived women who took a vow of chastity, who led the same way of life as men. This phenomenon proves that the Hellenistic entourage accepted feminine perfection if women disdained the pleasures of the flesh and they assumed chastity not only of their free will but also due to their devotion to wisdom, so they “gave birth” not to mortals but to spiritual successors: spiritual and immortal fruit yielded by God’s beloved servant (68. §). Engagement to God, that is chastity offered to God was not strange to Jewish mysticists. This mysterious union was possible not for men exclusively. We read in Philo’s De cherubim that Sarah, Lea, Rebecca and Zipporah also shared in this and therefore they can be considered chaste again (40–52). This community having monastic character on the Mareotis-lakeside, the site of “the most admirable” raised the scale of genuine devotion not only to celibacy but it also founded the institution of women chastity.

The Essenes and the Therapeutai wore the same clothing (Pro Judaeis defensio 12; DVC 38; De bello II. 8,128–131). Their white linen clothes expressed purity and solemnity. Although the structure of the Essene community was characterized by a strict order of rank, they all were wearing the same clothes. The same was to be seen in the Therapeute community.

The Therapeutai’s feast being organized on every seven times seven days is based on a calendar founded on a system in which the numbers 7 and 49 occur also used by the Palestinian Essenes. Today we have come to know that the Essenes’ calendar to all probability looks back to an old (3Mos 25) tradition of priestly origin (R. C. Leaney, Vermes). This calendar based on a system of 79 and 49 is represented by the Book of Enoch I, 72–82 and by the book of Jubilees 6,30–38 (cf. CD XVI,2–4). Each 49 days’ period was followed by an agricultural feast. The solar calendar used by the Essenes was more punctual than the official lunar calendar. Philo supports the Therapeutai’s great feast organized every 7x7 days by the Pythagorean numerology (65. §; cf. De specialibus legibus II,176–177). This does not marc the end of the period but Pentecost, which according to the calendar used in the book of Jubilees fell on the 15th of the third month (Sivan; May-June). It was on this day that the Essenes celebrated the renewal of their community (4Q266, frg. 11,16–21; 4Q270, frg. 7). The book of Jubilees mentiones Pentecost as an event referring to the Covenant concluded with Noah which is the feast of the oath at the same time. It was the right moment for the Essene community to confirm their Covenant with God, to take an oath and to inaugurate the new members (Jelizarova). Philo’s other writings also prove that by the 50th day we have to understand Pentecost (cf. De decalogo 158; De specialibus legibus II,176). Thus the Therapeutai’s reunion on the 50th day can be connected to the renewal feast of the Essenes of Israel. The results of the research confirm that the Essenes, the Qumran community and the Therapeutai used the same calendar. This is the most eloquent proof for our considering the Therapeutai an Egyptian branch of the Essene movement.

The Therapeute intended to achieve a spiritual brotherhood superior to the rest of society. Their turning away from the world, their rejecting wealth and their devotion towards spiritual values demand their rejecting social classes. They applied more radically the opinion made Paul the Apostle’s own coming from a Hellenistic world, according to which there is no such things as slave and freeman as faith and devotion are concerned (Gal 3,26.28). Therapeutai disapproved of slavery but in the framework of the community hierarchy and privileges persisted all the same. In the framework of the spiritual elite “the most admirable” constituted a restricted circle residing on the site in the neighbourhood of Alexandria. It must have been the spiritual center of the Essenes living in Egypt. This phenomenon can be compared to the organization of the Essene groups in Israel which had probably Qumran as its spiritual centre (cf. Quod omnis probus liber sit 75–76). Philo does not mention the existence of different strata in the Therapeute community. It seems that men and women belonging to it are almost equal. We may only conclude that men and women were divided into two strata: the so-called young people who intended to join and the members having full power. The term “young” oi< ne/oi; 72–77. §) refers to the existence of noviciate. Quod omnis probus liber sit 81 uses the word ne/oi and 1QRule of the Congregation (1QSa=1Q28a I,6–18) specifies that the young can become full members at the age of twenty after they had been trained for ten years. Philo does not speak about initiation but he alludes to it (67. §). This initiation may have taken place on the 50th day presumably in the way the Essenes of Israel had done on the great feast of renewal. The noviciate in the Therapeute community, the hierarchy and the privileges are characteristics showing their relationship with the Essene devotion. There is also a hint in Philo’s description at the priestly character of the Therapeutai similar of the Essenes’. The Essenes considered themselves to be the sons of Zadok, the Therapeutai community bore the name cerapeutai/, i<ke/thj respectively which were linked to priestly service. This also suggests that the two religious sects can be traced back to the same root. The priestly character of the Essene community is proved at its best by their assumed eating habits (Joachim Gnilka). DVC also hints at common meals when speaking about the temple and priesthood (73–74, 81–82. §). The evolution of priestly devotion implies the promise expressed in Exod.19,6: You shall be my kingdom of priests, my holy nation.

After having detached from the official cult, there appeared the need for the Essene community to create a proper spiritual worship for the transitional period. It was based on the prophetical criticism on sacrifice. Sacrifice was replaced by making a most precious offer, prayer and by acts corresponding to Law (Florilegium – 4Qflor = 4Q174 I,6–7). They considered themselves “human sanctuary” being propitiatory sacrifice for the sins of Israel (1QS VIII,4–7). That is, the spiritualization of the cult followed. Similar phenomenon ensued concerning the Christians ousted from the cult of Jerusalem. The prayers and hymns of the Therapeutai rooted in the Essenes and living far from the Sanctuary played the same role as in Palestine. The Therapeutai representing meditative devotion, who were rather “the followers of pious meditation” exercised the acts of Law even in a more spiritual form. Besides serving each other with love and being fair they lived in a strict asceticism. Abstinence for them meant the most important acy of charity and they considered it to be a “spiritual fundament”.

If we compare the ancient sources concerning the Essens and Therapeutai we can conclude that these movement (sects) were in many respects alike. Their social structures, their relying on the Old Testament Scriptures and their scriptural study the preserving of Jewish tradition, their ascetic way of life, their prayers and hymns, their calendar and their sacral meals as well as their priestly devotion were similar. It is obvious that we cannot speak of the identity of the two movements as there are striking differences between them as well. These differences are due to the fact that our sources are deficient and they do not offer us a full picture. Besides they come from authors who were informed to a different extent having subjective attitude towards the movement and who lived in different periods of time in different places and who followed different aims by writing for different public at a given stage in the development of the sect. For this reason the differences occurring in the different sources cannot be considered to be contradictory, on the contrary they complete each other, they deal with the different branches of the same movement. Having all these in mind we can boldly affirm that the common root of the two movements is indisputable. Consequently we can consider the Therapeute community to be the Egyptian branch of the Essene movement. Its development is considerably determined by the Hellenistic influence. It was a Diaspora movement having Jewish and monastic character in which Essene and mainly Pythagorean elements are to be discovered.